Standardisation Is Motivated In The First Place English Language Essay

Standardisation Is Motivated In The First Place English Language Essay Many people regard having a standard language to contain numerous benefits for society because it enables different people from far distant locations to be able to communicate and understand each other, however, this would not be case if one were communicating in his own regional dialect. Even nowadays fluent English speakers would struggle to understand someone who speaks with the Geordie variety. Standard language has been defined as one that shows maximal variation in function and minimal variation in form. Maximal variation of function means that a language community uses its language for all purposes, both locally and nationwide. (Nevalainen 2006:29). During the late Middle Ages in England, English was restricted to local use and at home not across the country as England was ruled in French and Latin, as they were seen as the prestige varieties. Terttu Nevalainen (2006) comments on the situation in English during the Middle Ages and states that in sociolinguistic terms the situa tion was one of diglossia: co-occurring languages served different functions in the community. (p.29) But what is exactly meant by standardisation? Standardisation is the process leading to the emergence of a standard language, and involves the reduction in variability in terms of the grammatical and vocabulary choices that can be made. (Culpeper et al. 2009:224). For instance, previously in Old English multiple negations were frequent, however in SE only a single negation is used. The American linguist Einar Haugen (1972) outlined four stages in the development of a standard language: selection, elaboration, codification and implementation (also referred to as acceptance). These are the four main processes involved in standardising any language. Selection involves the selection of a particular variety within the language to be used as the standard throughout the country. For a number of reasons the London-based variety which had a Midlands basis was selected. London was the capital, centre for court, administration and trade. It was the largest population surpassing its European neighbours. (Culpeper et al. 2009:237). Also in 1476, Caxton established the first printing press in England at Westminster and he modelled what he produced from the variety in London. Thus the books which were printed were published throughout the entire country. In addition, the first English Bible was William Tyndales New Testament translation which printed became available everywhe re. (Crystal 2004:271). However others such as Wales (2002) have argued that the language of Northern England had a far greater importance both historically and in contemporary society, as this was the region in which Industrial Revolution flourished and where the writing of literature in dialect had continued for over 150. (cited in Culpeper et al, 2009:235). Elaboration, meanwhile, means ensuring that the selected variety to be standardised is capable of fulfilling its necessary requirements. Historically, until 1380 English was very much competing with French for official affairs of state. The 1362 Statute of Pleading ensured that court proceedings would be conducted in English. (Baugh and Cable 1993:145). Also, Latin not English was the main language of science. However, when English was no longer competing with other languages it needed a vast expansion of the vocabulary, which was mainly achieved through adopting Latin and Greek words, and an expansion in the range of styles, especially written. (Culpeper et al. 2009:237). Codification refers to writing down all the rules and vocabulary which govern the selected variety. Discussions on codifying English first took place in the seventeenth century were attempts were made to regulate English in the same way as the Academie Francaise was doing for French, however nothing was really established. Also, English did not really possess a dictionary until 1755, when Samuel Johnson published his A Dictionary of the English Language. In addition words and their usages appeared according to their occurrence in what he considered the best authors -thereby confirming the standard as a language of literacy and high culture. Descriptive grammers were more limited, with the exception of Joseph Priestleys 1761 The Rudiments of English Grammer, the grammars recorded were prescriptive i.e. stating that which should and not be said and written. (Culpeper 2009:238) Implementation the forth process involved in standardisation, involves the general acceptability of the population of the norms of the variety selected over other such present varieties. This is through the spread and enforcement of such norms. Also it is aided through various institutions, schools, government and religious institutions. For example, the establishment of the printing press in London spread this particular variety across the country by making the books and literature available. Thus this made it easy to standardise at least the written language. Therefore, Wiliams 2007 asserts the status of SE with its eighteenth-century prescriptive additions, remained unchallenged during the nineteenth century with 1870 Education Act promoting the teaching of SE, as did official educational policy in England throughout the twentieth century and up until today (cited in Culpeper 2009:238). The rise of the standard language in the fifteenth century meant that it quickly became equated with correct speech, whereas dialect came to be associated with uneducated and incorrect usage. The printing presses soon ironed out the remaining local differences in written English, as was only to be expected in view of the fact that 98 per cent of all English books were printed in London. (Gorlach 1991:13). The EModE period was a time of tremendous political, economic, technological and social change in Britain that was to change the size, shape and functioning of the world and with it the English language. (Fennell 2001:136). The reconstruction of any language before 1900 must, in the first phase at least, be that of the written language, which may vary to a greater or lesser extent from the spoken. Direct evidence of the spoken English of the time is very scarce, as is pointed out by Barber (1976:48-56). Whether in allegedly literal protocols or court proceedings, popular dramatic scenes (Kings 1941) or texts representing Early Modern English (EModE) dialects the standardising effect of editing must always be reckoned with sermons and speeches, which are still extant in great numbers and which were written down for oral delivery diverge from spoken English on the rhetorical level. Also, the spoken and written forms of a language also differ in modern times as a consequence of the requirements of different types of communicative situations, despite the fact that most native speakers are also writers of the language and that users frequently have occasion both to speak and to write on the same topic. Sinc e in EModE times competence in written English was not as common as it is today, and the need to switch from the spoken to the written language and back again was less frequent, it may be assumed that the two subsystems were further apart then than they are in modern speech communities. Furthermore, Gorlalch (1991) highlights that now written language was more superregional and homogenous but also more dependent on style and literary traditions. Two counter-directional developments occurred within EModE, affecting the interrelationship of the two subsystems: The increasing influence of the schools brought spelling and pronunciation closer together, the spelling most often affecting the pronunciation of a particular word. Increasing use of the written form as a consequence of changing communicative needs and conventions and its improvements in accordance with Latin models meant that the written language diverged from spoken English , in the particular at the level of syntax. (p12) In neither Germany nor Italy was the standardisation of the written language associated with the establishment of a strong central language administration. In both it was largely commercial, although it did mark the emergence of a sense of nationhood. In Germany the centralized power of the Emperor began to disintegrate in the thirteenth century , and some of the earliest documents in German are the 2500 Urkunden from before 1299 (2200 of them are from the High German area), documents that arbitrated differences between the newly independent dukes and counts. These were all in regional dialects. In the meantime, the cities of the Hanseatic League created a Low German commercial language, not unlike Dutch, from which a large body of contracts and commercial correspondence survives. But as power moved to central Germany, the influence of the Hanseatic koine died. Standard written High German evolved from its three successive Imperial chancelleries. P77 In essence it is clear that European languages were standardised first in writng and only later in speech. Second, standard written forms appeared first in official government and business documents. (Fisher 1996:81). Hence this served as the basis for the usage of scribes and printers and eventually of handbooks and dictionaries created for teaching the standard written language. Every enduring civilisation has had a writing system and archives. Like those of the Roman Empire and Medieval Europe, the writing systems of all of the ancient civilisations were the products of official secretariats striving for uniformity and continuity. For instance with the support of Andrew Carnegies $250,000, the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 1900s undertook to revise English spelling. However no change came into fruition. Thus the standard language is nothing other than official language of government , the judiciary, and business. It is still anchored as firmly in the seats of power as it has been since the dawn of writing. (Fisher 1996:82). When there have been attempts of spelling and lexical reforms, there were institutions set up and sponsored by governments to carry out such reforms like in Italy and Spain, and almost so in England in EModE period. In light of the statement of Milroy and Milroy (1999) an absolute standardisation of a spoken language is almost impossible. Historically written language has always differed from the spoken language. However, after they have been codified, written languages have more influence upon the structure and pronunciation of the spoken than do the spoken on the structure and orthography of the written. .As the written form has over the years become more standardised due mainly to the influence of education. Despite this has had little impact on the spoken stratum. 83 In conclusion, although many may consider SE to be the variety which is pushed in society it does contain flaws. Standard English is in many ways a social class dialect used by middle-class speakers. Studies have repeatedly shown that it is difficult for some children from working class backgrounds to acquire written Standard English.

Freak the Mighty Essay

Freak the Mighty is a story about the power of a true friendship. Freak and Max are two boys who were so different, and yet had much in common with one another. Freak as well as Max both had limitations and this helped them to become friends. They both run into problems, but together they are â€Å"Freak the Mighty, slaying dragons, rescuing fair maidens, and walking high above the world. † There are differences between Freak and Max. Max is big and tall, a slow thinker, and runs away from his problems. Freak is small, smart, and tries very hard to be brave. There are similarities between the two boys, both have a disability, both do not known their dads, and both are in fear of something. In the story it shows how Max is afraid of joining life here on Earth and Freak is afraid of leaving life here on Earth. Max handles this fear by staying quiet and giving in to people when they bother him and Freak deals with his fear by convincing himself that he will be saved by receiving bionic body parts. Main Events: Freak the Mighty finds Loretta’s purse and gives it to her. Max murdering dad kidnaps him and Freak saves him by spraying a liquid at him from his water gun. Freak gets very ill and goes into the hospital. Conclusion: In the story Max was so busy rescuing adventures, treasure hunting, and slaying dragons that he did not even realize that he already had begun living life. Freak realizes that he will die, but knows that he will stay alive through Max’s story of his and Max’s adventures. When Freak dies, Max feels as if he lost a part of himself because they were friends. Loretta gives Max hope after Freak dies by telling him â€Å"nothing is a drag. Think about it! † 1 Fact and 1 Opinion One fact is that this book is for anybody to read because it shares the story about people with disabilities and what they have to go through in their lives. My opinion is that everyone in school should be made to read this book because it might help them know what people that are different from them is going through.

Depression Research Paper Essay

People every day are diagnosed with mental and emotional illnesses that completely change their lives. Depression is one of the many illnesses that take its toll on an average person. Medical experts believe that depression causes more disability throughout the world than almost any other medical illness or disorder (World Book). Depression affects more Americans than cancer, AIDS, or coronary heart disease. About one in five Americans will develop a mood disorder, usually depression, at some point in his or her life (O. Hyde and Forsyth 7). In some cases chemicals that brain cells use to communicate are out of balance and causes depression (CQ Researcher). Many recognized with this sickness may not believe they can live a normal life. However a patient diagnosed with depression can lead a normal life by taking medication, different types of therapy, and gaining support from family and friends. â€Å"How did my sister fall through a hole in her life and into some other life below?â € (Schumacher 3). Depression brings about feelings other than sadness that affects a patient each and every day. â€Å"‘I can’t describe it,’ Dora said. ‘I don’t know how’† (Schumacher 40). People dealing with this illness find it hard to explain the feeling. â€Å"It’s like being trapped and you feel completely stuck, it really effects how you think every day† (Anonymous). When one is depressed they feel miserable and lose interest in all activity. â€Å"All I wanted to do was sleep; I never wanted to go out and lost a lot of connection from my friends† (Anonymous). â€Å"‘A drowning person doesn’t rescue herself,’ I said†¦ I pictured Dora Struggling and drowning. ‘Which is why it’s so important-for your sister and for everyone else-that she learn to swim’† (Schumacher 116). Depression is always described as being lost or being stuck in a black hole, it seems like there is no way out of it, but with a little help there is. Doctors are now able to diagnose and treat depression with medications better than they were before (CQ Researcher). â€Å"It depends on the severity you have it, for more severe cases medication is definitely helpful. Depression, in most cases is just a chemical imbalance and taking medication can balance everything out and make you feel more normal† (Anonymous). Antidepressants are the category of medication used to help treat the chemical imbalance that causes depression. Taking medications, such as antidepressants, is not necessary in all cases of this illness. â€Å"My mom definitely had a more severe case than I did, she took medication and you could tell the difference in her mood  drastically changed and she spent more time with us as opposed to when she wasn’t taking antidepressants† (Anonymous). Antidepressants increase the attentiveness of neurotransmitters in the brain. Antidepressants do not work immediately. After numerous weeks of treatment the r eceptors become less sensitive and depression lifts (World Book). There are three different types of antidepressants. One type is selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s), which is one of the newer drugs that aid depression. SSRI’s prevent brain cells from reabsorbing extra neurotransmitters after the chemicals have delivered their messages. It focuses on one specific neurotransmitter alone, serotonin (O. Hyde and H. Forsyth 54). Another type is tricyclic antidepressants (TCA’s) which along with SSRI’s stops the brain from receiving excessive neurotransmitters, but this category focuses on two types of neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine (O. Hyde and H. Forsyth 53). Tricyclic refers to the chemical structure of the compounds. The third type of antidepressant is monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI’s) which inhibit a protein that breaks down excess neurotransmitters, norepinephrine (World Book). Patients on monoamine oxidase norepinephrine have to avoid foods containing tyramine (O. Hyde and H. Forsyth 55). These three types of antidepressants all help to chemically balance the brain and helps put a patient back on track to live a normal life. Although antidepressants bring stability to a depressed person there are some side effects. Some side effects include weight loss, weight gain, nausea, dry mouth, dizziness, sweating, tremor, sleep disturbances, blurred vision, seizures, and yawning (Schumacher 106). A bunch of the side effects are major but are mostly non-persistent or might not even occur. Some see the side effects not being worth it. â€Å"My mom saw that living a more normal life was worth a few side effects that probably weren’t going to happen† (Anonymous). Therapy is another way patients with depression can cope. There are two different types of therapy a person suffering depression can take on. Many patients benefit from psychotherapy which can focus on improving thinking, problem solving, improving personal relationships, or increasing enjoyable activities (World Book). Psychotherapy helps depression caused mostly by an emotional imbalance. Cognitive therapy is a branch of psychotherapy that is based off the idea that depressed people have distorted views of the world, the future and themselves. It helps correct  the negative thoughts that are developed in the brain of a patient. Behavioral therapy is another subdivision of psychotherapy used. Behavioral therapy is similar to cognitive therapy in that it alters ones thought patterns and changes their behavior. One last stem of psychotherapy is psychodynamic therapy which takes people into their past to find out unresolved problems and helps a person understand and cope with their conflicts (O. Hyde and H. Forsyth 67). â€Å"At first I felt awkward talking to someone I didn’t know, even though there was a confidentially thing it was hard to trust my therapist. After a while though, it was good talk and get things out, it helped with my mild depression and self-harm I went through† (Anonymous). Talking to a therapist helps the mind of a depressed patient get back to where it needs to be. If medication and psychotherapy fail, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be prescribed by a doctor. Electroconvulsive therap y was also previously known as electroshock therapy. Electroconvulsive therapy is for patients who haven’t responded to any other treatment. It uses electrically induced seizures for a therapeutic effect. Before the procedure anesthesia is typically given so that the patient doesn’t experience any uneasiness or feel the electric current and knowingly experience the seizure. The use of ECT is to treat hospitalized patients who remain severely depressed with suicidal thoughts. Electroconvulsive therapy commonly restores these depressed patients to a normal mental state (World Book). Most patients who use ETC and do not follow it up with medication will relapse back into a depressed state. Physicians have no idea how ETC brings one out of depression. Many patients who severely suffer from depression feel that the treatment of electroconvulsive therapy is worth the risk (O. Hyde and H. Forsyth 66). Another way a depressed person can strive to live a normal life is to gain support from friends and family. â€Å"‘Do me a favor?’ She asked, with her mouth by my ear. ‘Sure,’ I said ‘Name it.’ ‘Save me,’ she said† (Schumacher 29). If a patient knows that they always have friends and family to fall back on if they need anything then it makes one feel more comfortable. â€Å"Friends helped me a lot; they understood me on a different level than my family did. My family sometimes didn’t understand the reasons why I was depressed and upset and they never knew what to say to me because it affected them also† (Anonymous). Times when a depressed person can’t turn to their therapist they always have friends and family around to  support them. If family and friends do not treat the patient like they have an illness then they are less likely to feel out of place in everyday activities. If others surrounding the person suffering from depression act different towards them it won’t help in the process for them to exist in a normal life. â€Å"I’ve read this quote somewhere and I loved it, ‘People who are not depressed see the world the way they want to see it. People who are depressed see the world the way it actually is.’ It seems relevant† (Anonymous). Depression changes a patient’s entire life. They are left exhausted physically and emotionally and not wanting to do anything. The illness brings out emotions in a person that is indescribable. They think about all the bad things in reality and not the things that make life happier. All the conflicting emotions may make it look as if it’s impossible to lead a normal functioning life. Having a regular being is not unfeasible to achieve with a little help. Depression can be a chemical or emotional imbalance, or maybe a combination of both. â€Å"Some things bring it out more than other things† (Anonymous). However a patient diagnosed with depression can lead a normal life by taking medication such as antidepressants, trying different types of therapy like psychotherapy or electroconvulsive therapy, and gaining positive support from family and friends. â€Å"At first it was truly one of the toughest battles I had to go through, especially because of the history with my mom dealing with it, slowly but surely I conquered through it, no one treats me differently, it’s normal† (Anonymous).

Egoism Theory Of Ethics And Corruption - 1332 Words

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